History of US invasions and interventions in Latin America 1846 - 2004 [6]
1846 The U.S., fulfilling the doctrine of Manifest Destiny, goes to war with Mexico and ends
up with a third of Mexico's territory.
1850, 1853, 1854, 1857 U.S. interventions in Nicaragua.
1855 Tennessee adventurer William Walker and his mercenaries take over Nicaragua, institute
forced labor, and legalize slavery.
"Los yankis... have burst their way like a fertilizing torrent through the barriers
of barbarism." --N.Y. Daily News
He's ousted two years later by a Central American coalition largely inspired by Cornelius
Vanderbilt, whose trade Walker was infringing.
"The enemies of American civilization-- for such are the enemies of
slavery-- seem to be more on the alert than its friends." --William Walker
1856 First of
five U.S. interventions in Panama to protect the Atlantic-Pacific railroad from Panamanian nationalists.
1898
U.S. declares war on Spain, blaming it for destruction of the Maine. (In 1976, a U.S. Navy commission will conclude
that the explosion was probably an accident.) The war enables the U.S. to occupy Cuba, Puerto Rico, Guam, and the Philippines.
1903 The Platt Amendment inserted into the Cuban constitution grants the U.S. the right to
intervene when it sees fit.
1903 When negotiations with Colombia break down, the U.S. sends
ten warships to back a rebellion in Panama in order to acquire the land for the Panama Canal. The Frenchman Philippe Bunau-Varilla
negotiates the Canal Treaty and writes Panama's constitution.
1904 U.S. sends customs agents
to take over finances of the Dominican Republic to assure payment of its external debt.
1905 U.S.
Marines help Mexican dictator Porfirio Díaz crush a strike in Sonora.
1905 U.S. troops land
in Honduras for the first of 5 times in next 20 years.
1906 Marines occupy Cuba for two years
in order to prevent a civil war.
1907 Marines intervene in Honduras to settle a war with
Nicaragua.
1908 U.S. troops intervene in Panama for first of 4 times in next decade.
1909
Liberal President José Santos Zelaya of Nicaragua proposes that American mining and banana companies pay taxes; he
has also appropriated church lands and legalized divorce, done business with European firms, and executed two Americans for
participating in a rebellion. Forced to resign through U.S. pressure. The new president, Adolfo Díaz, is the former treasurer
of an American mining company.
1910 U.S. Marines occupy Nicaragua to help support the Díaz
regime.
1911 The Liberal regime of Miguel Dávila in Honduras has irked the State Department
by being too friendly with Zelaya and by getting into debt with Britain. He is overthrown by former president Manuel Bonilla,
aided by American banana tycoon Sam Zemurray and American mercenary Lee Christmas, who becomes commander-in-chief of the Honduran
army.
1912 U.S. Marines intervene in Cuba to put down a rebellion of sugar workers.
1912
Nicaragua occupied again by the U.S., to shore up the inept Díaz government. An election is called to resolve the
crisis: there are 4000 eligible voters, and one candidate, Díaz. The U.S. maintains troops and advisors in the country until
1925.
1914 U.S. bombs and then occupies Vera Cruz, in a conflict arising out of a dispute
with Mexico's new government. President Victoriano Huerta resigns.
1915 U.S. Marines occupy
Haiti to restore order, and establish a protectorate which lasts till
1934 The president of Haiti
is barred from the U.S. Officers' Club in Port-au-Prince, because he is black.
"Think of it-- niggers speaking French!"
--secretary of State William Jennings Bryan, briefed on the Haitian situation
1916 Marines
occupy the Dominican Republic, staying till 1924.
1916 Pancho Villa, in the sole act of Latin
American aggression against the U.S, raids the city of Columbus, New Mexico, killing 17 Americans.
"Am sure Villa's
attacks are made in Germany." --James Gerard, U.S. ambassador to Berlin
1917 U.S. troops
enter Mexico to pursue Pancho Villa. They can't catch him.
1917 Marines intervene again in
Cuba, to guarantee sugar exports during WWI.
1918 U.S. Marines occupy Panamanian province
of Chiriqui for two years to maintain public order.
1921 President Coolidge strongly suggests
the overthrow of Guatemalan President Carlos Herrera, in the interests of United Fruit. The Guatemalans comply.
1925
U.S. Army troops occupy Panama City to break a rent strike and keep order.
1926 Marines,
out of Nicaragua for less than a year, occupy the country again, to settle a volatile political situation. Secretary of State
Kellogg describes a "Nicaraguan-Mexican-Soviet" conspiracy to inspire a "Mexican-Bolshevist hegemony" within striking distance
of the Canal. "That intervention is not now, never was, and never will be a set policy of the United States is one of the
most important facts President-elect Hoover has made clear." --NYT,
1929 U.S. establishes
a military academy in Nicaragua to train a National Guard as the country's army. Similar forces are trained in Haiti and the
Dominican Republic.
"There is no room for any outside influence other than ours in this region. We could not tolerate
such a thing without incurring grave risks... Until now Central America has always understood that governments which we recognize
and support stay in power, while those which we do not recognize and support fall. Nicaragua has become a test case. It is
difficult to see how we can afford to be defeated." --Undersecretary of State Robert Olds
1930 Rafael
Leonidas Trujillo emerges from the U.S.-trained National Guard to become dictator of the Dominican Republic.
1932
The U.S. rushes warships to El Salvador in response to a communist-led uprising. President Martínez, however, prefers
to put down the rebellion with his own forces, killing over 8000 people (the rebels had killed about 100).
1933
President Roosevelt announces the Good Neighbor policy.
1933 Marines finally leave
Nicaragua, unable to suppress the guerrilla warfare of General Augusto César Sandino. Anastasio Somoza García becomes the
first Nicaraguan commander of the National Guard.
"The Nicaraguans are better fighters than the Haitians, being of
Indian blood, and as warriors similar to the aborigines who resisted the advance of civilization in this country." --NYT correspondent
Harold Denny
1933 Roosevelt sends warships to Cuba to intimidate Gerardo Machado y Morales,
who is massacring the people to put down nationwide strikes and riots. Machado resigns. The first provisional government lasts
only 17 days; the second Roosevelt finds too left-wing and refuses to recognize. A pro-Machado counter-coup is put down by
Fulgencio Batista, who with Roosevelt's blessing becomes Cuba's new strongman.
1934 Platt
Amendment repealed.
1934 Sandino assassinated by agents of Somoza, with U.S. approval. Somoza
assumes the presidency of Nicaragua two years later. To block his ascent, Secretary of State Cordell Hull explains, would
be to intervene in the internal affairs of Nicaragua.
1936 U.S. relinquishes rights to unilateral
intervention in Panama.
1941 Ricardo Adolfo de la Guardia deposes Panamanian president Arias
in a military coup-- first clearing it with the U.S. Ambassador.
It was "a great relief to us, because Arias had been
very troublesome and very pro-Nazi." --Secretary of War Henry Stimson
1943 The editor of
the Honduran opposition paper El Cronista is summoned to the U.S. embassy and told that criticism of the dictator Tiburcio
Carías Andino is damaging to the war effort. Shortly afterward, the paper is shut down by the government.
1944
The dictator Maximiliano Hernández Martínez of El Salvador is ousted by a revolution; the interim government is overthrown
five months later by the dictator's former chief of police. The U.S.'s immediate recognition of the new dictator does much
to tarnish Roosevelt's Good Neighbor policy in the eyes of Latin Americans.
1946 U.S. Army
School of the Americas opens in Panama as a hemisphere-wide military academy. Its linchpin is the doctrine of National Security,
by which the chief threat to a nation is internal subversion; this will be the guiding principle behind dictatorships in Brazil,
Argentina, Uruguay, Chile, Central America, and elsewhere.
1948 José Figueres Ferrer wins
a short civil war to become President of Costa Rica. Figueres is supported by the U.S., which has informed San José that its
forces in the Panama Canal are ready to come to the capital to end "communist control" of Costa Rica.
1954
Jacobo Arbenz Guzmán, elected president of Guatemala, introduces land reform and seizes some idle lands of United
Fruit-- proposing to pay for them the value United Fruit claimed on its tax returns. The CIA organizes a small force to overthrow
him and begins training it in Honduras. When Arbenz naively asks for U.S. military help to meet this threat, he is refused;
when he buys arms from Czechoslovakia it only proves he's a Red.
Guatemala is "openly and diligently toiling to create
a Communist state in Central America... only two hours' bombing time from the Panama Canal." --Life
The CIA broadcasts
reports detailing the imaginary advance of the "rebel army," and provides planes to strafe the capital. The army refuses to
defend Arbenz, who resigns. The U.S.'s hand-picked dictator, Carlos Castillo Armas, outlaws political parties, reduces the
franchise, and establishes the death penalty for strikers, as well as undoing Arbenz's land reform. Over 100,000 citizens
are killed in the next 30 years of military rule.
"This is the first instance in history where a Communist government
has been replaced by a free one." --Richard Nixon
1957 Eisenhower establishes Office of Public
Safety to train Latin American police forces.
1959 Fidel Castro takes power in Cuba. Several
months earlier he had undertaken a triumphal tour through the U.S., which included a CIA briefing on the Red menace.
"Castro's
continued tawdry little melodrama of invasion." --Time, of Castro's warnings of an imminent U.S. invasion
1960
Eisenhower authorizes covert actions to get rid of Castro. Among other things, the CIA tries assassinating him with
exploding cigars and poisoned milkshakes. Other covert actions against Cuba include burning sugar fields, blowing up boats
in Cuban harbors, and sabotaging industrial equipment.
1960 The Canal Zone becomes the focus
of U.S. counterinsurgency training.
1960 A new junta in El Salvador promises free elections;
Eisenhower, fearing leftist tendencies, withholds recognition. A more attractive right-wing counter-coup comes along in three
months.
"Governments of the civil-military type of El Salvador are the most effective in containing communist penetration
in Latin America." --John F. Kennedy, after the coup
1960 Guatemalan officers attempt to
overthrow the regime of President Fuentes; Eisenhower stations warships and 2000 Marines offshore while Fuentes puts down
the revolt. [Another source says that the U.S. provided air support for Fuentes.]
1960s U.S.
Green Berets train Guatemalan army in counterinsurgency techniques. Guatemalan efforts against its insurgents include aerial
bombing, scorched-earth assaults on towns suspected of aiding the rebels, and death squads, which killed 20,000 people between
1966 and 1976 U.S. Army Col. John Webber claims that it was at his instigation that "the technique
of counter-terror had been implemented by the army."
"If it is necessary to turn the country into a cemetery in order
to pacify it, I will not hesitate to do so." --President Carlos Arana Osorio
1961 U.S. organizes
force of 1400 anti-Castro Cubans, ships it to the Bahía de los Cochinos. Castro's army routs it.
1961
CIA-backed coup overthrows elected Pres. J. M. Velasco Ibarra of Ecuador, who has been too friendly with Cuba.
1962
CIA engages in campaign in Brazil to keep Jono Goulart from achieving control of Congress.
1963
CIA-backed coup overthrows elected social democrat Juan Bosch in the Dominican Republic.
1963
A far-right-wing coup in Guatemala, apparently U.S.-supported, forestalls elections in which "extreme leftist" Juan
José Arévalo was favored to win.
"It is difficult to develop stable and democratic government [in Guatemala], because
so many of the nation's Indians are illiterate and superstitious." --School textbook, 1964
1964 Jono
Goulart of Brazil proposes agrarian reform, nationalization of oil. Ousted by U.S.-supported military coup.
1964
The free market in Nicaragua:
The Somoza family controls "about one-tenth of the cultivable land in Nicaragua,
and just about everything else worth owning, the country's only airline, one television station, a newspaper, a cement plant,
textile mill, several sugar refineries, half-a-dozen breweries and distilleries, and a Mercedes-Benz agency." --Life World
Library
1965 A coup in the Dominican Republic attempts to restore Bosch's government. The
U.S. invades and occupies the country to stop this "Communist rebellion," with the help of the dictators of Brazil, Paraguay,
Honduras, and Nicaragua.
"Representative democracy cannot work in a country such as the Dominican Republic," Bosch
declares later. Now why would he say that?
1966 U.S. sends arms, advisors, and Green Berets
to Guatemala to implement a counterinsurgency campaign.
"To eliminate a few hundred guerrillas, the government killed
perhaps 10,000 Guatemalan peasants." --State Dept. report on the program
1967 A team of Green
Berets is sent to Bolivia to help find and assassinate Che Guevara.
1968 Gen. José Alberto
Medrano, who is on the payroll of the CIA, organizes the ORDEN paramilitary force, considered the precursor of El Salvador's
death squads.
1970 In this year (just as an example), U.S. investments in Latin America earn
$1.3 billion; while new investments total $302 million.
1970 Salvador Allende Gossens elected
in Chile. Suspends foreign loans, nationalizes foreign companies. For the phone system, pays ITT the company's minimized valuation
for tax purposes. The CIA provides covert financial support for Allende's opponents, both during and after his election.
1972
U.S. stands by as military suspends an election in El Salvador in which centrist José Napoleón Duarte was favored
to win. (Compare with the emphasis placed on the 1982 elections.)
1973 U.S.-supported military
coup kills Allende and brings Augusto Pinochet Ugarte to power. Pinochet imprisons well over a hundred thousand Chileans (torture
and rape are the usual methods of interrogation), terminates civil liberties, abolishes unions, extends the work week to 48
hours, and reverses Allende's land reforms.
1973 Military takes power in Uruguay, supported
by U.S. The subsequent repression reportedly features the world's highest percentage of the population imprisoned for political
reasons.
1974 Office of Public Safety is abolished when it is revealed that police are being
taught torture techniques.
1976 Election of Jimmy Carter leads to a new emphasis on human
rights in Central America. Carter cuts off aid to the Guatemalan military (or tries to; some slips through) and reduces aid
to El Salvador.
1979 Ratification of the Panama Canal treaty which is to return the Canal
to Panama by 1999.
"Once again, Uncle Sam put his tail between his legs and crept away rather than face trouble."
--Ronald Reagan
1980 A right-wing junta takes over in El Salvador. U.S. begins massively
supporting El Salvador, assisting the military in its fight against FMLN guerrillas. Death squads proliferate; Archbishop
Romero is assassinated by right-wing terrorists; 35,000 civilians are killed in
1978-81 The rape
and murder of four U.S. churchwomen results in the suspension of U.S. military aid for one month.
The U.S. demands
that the junta undertake land reform. Within 3 years, however, the reform program is halted by the oligarchy.
"The
Soviet Union underlies all the unrest that is going on." --Ronald Reagan
1980 U.S., seeking
a stable base for its actions in El Salvador and Nicaragua, tells the Honduran military to clean up its act and hold elections.
The U.S. starts pouring in $100 million of aid a year and basing the contras on Honduran territory.
Death squads are
also active in Honduras, and the contras tend to act as a state within a state.
1981 The
CIA steps in to organize the contras in Nicaragua, who started the previous year as a group of 60 ex-National Guardsmen; by
1985 there are about 12,000 of them. 46 of the 48 top military leaders are ex-Guardsmen. The U.S. also sets up an economic
embargo of Nicaragua and pressures the IMF and the World Bank to limit or halt loans to Nicaragua.
1981
Gen. Torrijos of Panama is killed in a plane crash. There is a suspicion of CIA involvement, due to Torrijos' nationalism
and friendly relations with Cuba.
1982 A coup brings Gen. Efraín Ríos Montt to power in Guatemala,
and gives the Reagan administration the opportunity to increase military aid. Ríos Montt's evangelical beliefs do not prevent
him from accelerating the counterinsurgency campaign.
1983 Another coup in Guatemala replaces
Ríos Montt. The new President, Oscar Mejía Víctores, was trained by the U.S. and seems to have cleared his coup beforehand
with U.S. authorities.
1983 U.S. troops take over tiny Grenada. Rather oddly, it intervenes
shortly after a coup has overthrown the previous, socialist leader. One of the justifications for the action is the building
of a new airport with Cuban help, which Grenada claimed was for tourism and Reagan argued was for Soviet use. Later the U.S.
announces plans to finish the airport... to develop tourism.
1983 Boland Amendment prohibits
CIA and Defense Dept. from spending money to overthrow the government of Nicaragua-- a law the Reagan administration cheerfully
violates.
1984 CIA mines three Nicaraguan harbors. Nicaragua takes this action to the World
Court, which brings an $18 billion judgment against the U.S. The U.S. refuses to recognize the Court's jurisdiction in the
case.
1984 U.S. spends $10 million to orchestrate elections in El Salvador-- something of
a farce, since left-wing parties are under heavy repression, and the military has already declared that it will not answer
to the elected president.
1989 US sends troops to Bolivia to conduct raids on coca growing
and suspected cocaine processing region.
1989 U.S. invades Panama to dislodge CIA boy gone
wrong Manuel Noriega, an event which marks the evolution of the U.S.'s favorite excuse from Communism to drugs.
1995/6
U.S. sends troops to Haiti to restore President Aristide to office after a naval blockade against a military government.
1996 The U.S. battles global Communism by extending most-favored-nation trading status for
China, and tightening the trade embargo on Castro's Cuba.
2002 US backing and complicity
in failed coup dìétat in Venezuela to remove President Hugo Chavez from power. US warships detected off Venezuelan coast.
2004 Coup against President Aristide in Haiti carried out by CIA trained and backed insurgents
from Dominican Republic. US troops arrive to restore order, kidnap Aristide and send him to the Central African Empire.
US Citizens, don't let this pattern continue and allow the Neocons take your children away to help feather their own
nests.
Let's create a world of peace and mutual respect and support each other. This has to be worked for, it's not
easy and the first step is to impeach Bush and put the rest of his cronies such as Rice, Bolton, Wolfowitz, Cheney, Rumsfeld,
Powell amongst others on trial for crimes against humanity as well as against the US, Afghani and Iraqi peoples.
September
24th is the day to start, in the street and with the secure knowledge that 500 million Latin Americans, of which 400 million
are poor and yet will be supporting your efforts which will contribute to save the planet for future generations and from
certain destruction in the next century.
© Copyright 2005 by AxisofLogic.com
Read Carlos Herrera's bioCarlos Herrera's bio on Axis of Logic. His reports on the progress of the Bolivarian revolution in Latin America can be found
in his:
Series on Ecuador
Series on Bolivia
Series on Latin America
You can contact Carlos Herrera at: carlos@axisoflogic.com
Additional References
[1] Retired Major General Smedley Butler delivered the words in his famous
speech - I Was a Gangster for Capitalism - delivered in 1933 and published in Common Sense in 1935
[2]
U.S. Poverty Rate Continues to Rise[3] Greed Lured GI s into Colombian Underworld[4] Crack, Contras and the CIA,
Solomon: The CIA’s Cocaine Links,
CIA: Cocaine Import Agency[5] Chavez warns U.S. about 100 year war[6] U.S. Interventions in Latin America
Source:
www.axisoflogic.com